Dictating Lies and Deception Essay -- Terrorism, Bush

September 11, 2001 denoted a lamentable day throughout the entire existence of the United States; a fear monger assault had left the nation shaken. It didn't take long to decide the individuals who were behind the assault and a call for requital moved through the country. Residents in an influx of nationalism pursued military help and the United States discovered reverberating universal help for their endeavors in the war on fear. Little resistance was raised at the evacuation of the Taliban system and there was a lot of help for bringing Osama Bin Laden and the pioneers of al-Qaeda to equity. Endorsement abroad decreased around 18 months after the fact when Afghanistan turned into a venturing stone to the administration’s bigger desire, the intrusion of Iraq. The organization would concoct a few stories and now and again stay quiet of reality where might demonstrate positive for the Iraqi intrusion. It appears they were happy to express anything to advance the to a great exte nt disliked and pointless war they were settled on participating in. Shrub had been anxious to do battle with Iraq from the second he ventured into office and the organization's attention was essentially on Iraq even before the war in Afghanistan had started. In Where Men Win Glory, the content uncovers that â€Å"in November 2001, President Bush and Vice President Cheney had trained Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld to subtly make a nitty gritty arrangement for the attack of Iraq† (Krakauer 192). In spite of the fact that it is practically unimaginable, the United States had been assaulted this very month by al-Qaeda. The administration ought to have been compelled by a sense of honor on catching Osama Bin Laden and disbanding the fear based oppressor bunch al-Qaeda. Rather, they were designing Iraqi intrusion plans. Krakauer builds up extra verification of this expressing, â€Å"th... ...n Iraq to be finished. However, the war was a long way from being done and Iraqis were all the while battling against what they saw as a control of their nation by the United States. As piercingly acknowledged five years after the fact when more than 10,000 Iraqis gathered at the very area of the sculptures toppling for a genuinely notable occasion. The New York Times depicts that â€Å"[the Iraqis] assembled in Baghdad’s Firdos Square †¦ to fight the security concurrence with the United States that is booked for a vote† and â€Å"demonstrators hanged a dark hooded likeness of President Bush from a segment with ground-breaking imagery: it upheld the sculpture of Saddam Hussein that was toppled by American soldiers in April 2003† (Farrell et al.). In May of the next year the Bush Administration would return to its past gadgets to cover reality of the conditions encompassing the demise of Patrick Tillman.

Moral psychology Essay

In the principal address I have attempted to clarify you the idea of Business Ethics, its significance in the association, and contentions against its execution. Alongside that we did a little movement in order to make everything understood. In this talk I will discuss ethical quality and good gauges. Focuses to be canvassed in this talk: Meaning and attributes of ethical quality Meaning and cause of good gauges MORALITY What do you really mean by profound quality? Ethical quality can be clarified in every one of these ways: Ethical quality can be characterized as the principles that an individual or a gathering has about what is good and bad, or great and wickedness. Moral quality or character; rightness or unsoundness, starting at an activity; the character of being as per the standards or gauges of right direct. Not forced from outside, however intrinsic and can even be oblivious. We have a crucial inclination to associate. At last, it’s our ethical characteristics that drive us to live in concordance with the oblivious; doing so is the most noteworthy type of profound quality. Profound quality is individual; the ethical quality of a gathering diminishes as its size increments. Profound quality is a casual open framework applying to every single balanced individual, overseeing conduct that influences others, and has the reducing of malevolence or damage as its objective. Profound quality is a complex of ideas and philosophical convictions by which an individual decides if their activities are correct or wrong. Regularly, these ideas and convictions are summed up and classified in a culture or gathering, and hence serve to control the conduct of its individuals. Adjustment to such codification is called ethical quality, and the gathering may rely upon broad adjustment to such codes for its proceeded with presence. A â€Å"moral† may allude to a specific rule, as a rule as casual and general synopsis of an ethical standard, as applied in a given human circumstance. Qualities Of Morality To state that profound quality is an open framework joins the fundamental component that each and every individual who is dependent upon moral judgment comprehends what sorts of activities it denies, requires, demoralizes, supports, and permits. It additionally ensures that it is never silly to act ethically. It would take impressively more space than is suitable here to show that characterizing ethical quality as an open framework that applies to every levelheaded individual additionally brings about profound quality being a general manual for conduct that every single sound individual would advance for administering the conduct of every ethical operator. I should clarify that the case that every single objective individual would advance this framework possibly follows if restrictions are put on the convictions that sane people can utilize and in the event that they are endeavoring to agree with correspondingly constrained sane people. To state that profound quality is a casual framework implies that it has no legitimate adjudicators and choice methodology that give special responses to every ethical inquiry. At the point when it is significant that differences be settled, social orders utilize political and lawful frameworks to enhance profound quality. These proper frameworks have the way to give interesting answers, yet they don't give an ethical response to the inquiry. Model: A significant case of such an ethical inquiry is whether, and if so under what conditions, to permit premature birth. There is proceeding with contradiction about this ethical inquiry, despite the fact that the legitimate and political framework in the United States has given genuinely clear rules about the conditions under which premature birth is permitted. In spite of this significant and disputable issue, ethical quality, similar to all casual open frameworks, surmises overpowering concession to most good inquiries. Nobody thinks it is ethically defended to cheat, beguile, harm, or execute basically so as to increase adequate cash to take an incredible excursion. In by far most of good circumstances, given concession to the realities, nobody deviates, however for this very explanation, these circumstances are never examined. In this manner, the staggering concession to most good issues is regularly ignored. The case that ethical quality oversees conduct that influences others is fairly dubious. Some have guaranteed that ethical quality administers conduct that influences just the specialist himself/herself. Instances of conduct that apparently influences just oneself, frequently incorporate consuming recreational medications, masturbation, and creating one’s gifts. The last quality of ethical quality †that it has the reducing of malevolence or damage as its objective †is additionally to some degree questionable. The Utilitarians talk about delivering the best great as the objective of ethical quality. Anyway they incorporate the diminishing of mischief as fundamental to delivering the best great and practically the entirety of their models include the maintaining a strategic distance from or forestalling of damage. The worldview instances of good statutes include rules which forbid causing hurt straightforwardly or by implication, for example, rules disallowing executing, causing torment, beguiling, and breaking guarantees. Indeed, even those statutes that require or energize positive activity, for example, helping the destitute, are quite often identified with forestalling or diminishing damages. Moral Standards Moral gauges incorporate the standards we have about the sorts of activities we accept are ethically good and bad just as the qualities we place on the sorts of articles we accept are ethically acceptable and ethically awful. Moral standards can as a rule be communicated as general principles, ie. â€Å"Always come clean. † Moral qualities can for the most part be communicated as articulations depicting articles or highlights of items, ie. â€Å" Honesty is acceptable. † Source Of Moral Standards During youth moral principles are assimilated from family, companions and different cultural foundations. Sometime down the road encounters, learning and scholarly advancement help an individual in shaping these measures. Moral Standards Vs. Non-Moral Standards Moral guidelines manage matters, which can genuinely harm or truly advantage people while it isn't the situation with non-moral principles. Instances of non-moral principles incorporate the norms of behavior by which we judge habits as positive or negative, and the measures we call â€Å"law† by which we judge lawful good and bad. Moral principles are not shaped or changed by the choice of specific legitimate bodies and the legitimacy of these norms lies on the ampleness of the reasons that are taken to help and legitimize them. In the event that an individual has the ethical commitment to accomplish something, at that point the individual should do that regardless of whether this contentions with other non-virtues or personal responsibility. Moral gauges doesn't assess principles based on the interests of a specific individual or gathering, yet one that goes past close to home interests to a general viewpoint in which everyone’s interests are fair-mindedly considered equivalent. Moral gauges are related with exceptional feelings and an uncommon jargon. On the off chance that an individual lies in order to satisfy a reason and afterward a short time later he begins feeling regretful or embarrassed about his conduct. Focuses to consider: Till now we have talked about what is morals, business morals, ethical quality and good measures, yet understudies you ought to consistently recall that what is correct and moral for you might not be right and shameless for me or to some other individual sitting in the class. In a manner we can say that Ethics is an extremely emotional issue. Alright, disclose to me one thing that how are you currently going to respond when you will see an individual lying in a pool of blood out and about. It is safe to say that you are going to support him or will maintain a strategic distance from him on account of the dread of Delhi police? Expectation now you will begin utilizing your still, small voice and will do what you feel is correct and there will be no hiccups before making any move. Review: Morality can be characterized as the guidelines that an individual or a gathering has about what is good and bad, or great and underhandedness. Moral principles incorporate the standards we have about the sorts of activities we accept are ethically good and bad just as the qualities we place on the sorts of items we accept are ethically acceptable and ethically terrible. Movement Define profound quality. Talk about certain qualities of profound quality. http://www. slideshare. net/birubiru/profound quality and-good measures Social standards are bunch held convictions about how individuals ought to carry on in a given setting Sociologists depict standards as casual understandings that oversee society’s practices, while therapists have received an increasingly broad definition, perceiving littler gathering units, similar to a group or an office, may likewise support standards independent or notwithstanding social or cultural desires.

Analyzing Analysis by Division Essay Topics

Analyzing Analysis by Division Essay TopicsWriting an analysis by division essay topics is not an easy task. It involves a large amount of researching and even then it can be hard to get the right information for your essay. Here are some ideas you should be aware of when trying to write an analysis by division essay topic.First, analysis by division essay topics are often times divided into four main sections. The first section, the thesis section, is going to be about the main topic of the essay. For example, if the main topic of the essay is the intersection of government and business, the thesis section will need to include a statement about the government bureaucracy and the role it plays in the business world. Then you will need to spend time detailing how the business world is affected by the government and how those effects change over time.You will also need to spend time describing why the topic is important in the society. Is it simply because it impacts businesses and how they are influenced by the government? Is it because it affects the laws that affect the business and how business can change those laws in the future?The second section, the debate section, will be where you have an opportunity to get to the heart of the issue. In this section you need to summarize the argument for the thesis, especially in relation to any other parts of the essay that will be based around that argument. Then you will need to find supporting evidence for your argument.The third section, the discussion section, will be where you describe how these issues affect people in different ways. You will need to spend time explaining how these changes will affect you as a person. You will also need to go over what the effects of the changes are for your group of readers, especially if you are writing an analysis by division essay topics that centers on an entire population.The fourth section, the conclusion, will end the essay on a high note. You will need to summarize ever ything that you've written in the sections above and then you will use that summary to conclude your essay. You will also need to make sure that you clearly explain your conclusion in the conclusion, especially if you have no supporting evidence. Finally, you will use this conclusion to summarize what you want the reader to take away from your essay.Analysis by division essay topics are a difficult assignment. However, they are important because they help you figure out how to structure your essay properly and to figure out what information you should include in each section. They are also important because they allow you to consider the impact the government has on business.It is important that you spend a lot of time writing an analysis by division essay topics because they are the foundation for an impressive essay. If you make sure that you carefully plan the structure of your essay before you begin to write it, then you will be able to focus on your writing and not have to worr y about the details of the structure.

Essay on Historical Trends at American Colleges and...

Historical Trends at American Colleges and Universities The colonial colleges were among the first colleges created and were established under religious auspices. It was believed that an educated ministry was needed to establish Christianity in the New World. Harvard College was established in 1636, followed by Yale, William and Mary, Princeton and King ‘s College later to be called Columbia University and there were also others. The general colonial college curriculum included Latin, Greek, Hebrew, rhetoric, and logic. Later philosophy, metaphysics, ethics and mathematics were added. The argument later arose that colleges for agriculture and mechanical science should be established with support from federal land grants, thus the Morill†¦show more content†¦Colleges and universities are making progress in this new age of electronic information technology, yet, a continuing challenge remains at all levels of American education-that is the need to provide equitable and excellent education to an ethnically and racially diverse population. Education in a Culturally Diverse Society The United States has historically been a racially and ethnically a diverse nation. With the exception of the Native Americans, the roots of Americans can be traced back to other continents primarily Africa, Asia and Europe. African Americans came into the United States primarily through slavery. Slavery was later ended by the Civil War, Reconstruction and the Thirteenth Amendment. African Americans up until today do not receive an equal education. This began in the U. S. when southern states prohibited the teaching of African American children whether free or slave. In 1865, Congress established the Freedmen’s Bureau to assist in the economic and educational transition of African Americans from bondage to freedom in the South. They established schools throughout the South and enrolled 114,000 African American students. These schools were structured after the schools in the North where the curriculum provided reading, writing, grammar, geography, arithmetic, and music. These schools were staffed by a majority of Northern schoolteachers who brought with them their educational philosophies and teaching methods,Show MoreRelatedSexual Revolution, By Beth Bailey1505 Words   |  7 PagesKirsten Kershbaumer 2321-001 Bailey, Beth. Sex in the Heartland. Cambridge, Massachusetts, and London, England: Harvard University Press, 1999. In the book Sex in the Heartland, the author Beth Bailey provides the reader with a distinct, detailed, and informative read of the impact in which the sexual revolution had on American culture during the 1960’s.This revolution took place in the town of Lawrence, Kansas, which Bailey refers to as the heartland of America. As Bailey states in her introductionRead MoreThe Education Of Higher Education Essay1662 Words   |  7 Pagessources fosters change. From our readings in A History of American Higher Education by John R. Thelin we have discussed the progress and design of American Higher Education from the early 1600’s on. In our second text, American Higher Education in the Twenty-First Century: Social, Political, and Economic challenges, Michael N. Bastedo, Philip G. Altbach, and Patricia J. Gumport focus their work on a more contemporary examination of American higher education allowing us to better understand currentRead MorePost College World : A Utopia Or A Mir age?985 Words   |  4 PagesPost-College world: A utopia or a mirage? College education has consistently remained the most significant factor dividing the haves and the have-nots in the United States. A diploma does not merely bring increased earning, social status, but even a better choice of marriage partner (Cohen). Anya Kamenetz wades right into the current zeitgeist of college affordability by arguing that we may have reached a post-college world in which graduates armed with formal education and credentials will cedeRead MoreEducating Our Own : The Historical Legacy Of Hbcus And Their Relevance For Educating A New Generation Of Leaders719 Words   |  3 PagesDate ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHIES Albritton, T. J. (2012). Educating our own: The historical legacy of HBCUs and their relevance for educating a new generation of leaders. Albritton Gives readers a brief history of historic higher educational black Institutions better know as (HBCUs) in this publication . Albritton also explains and includes how and why (HBCUs) were established. Albritton explains financing sources and needs after some time, and an examination of statements of purpose. AlbrittonRead MoreThe Future of College Education1566 Words   |  7 Pagesmarket is that well-paying blue collar jobs have rapidly become a thing of the past. To ensure financial stability and career development a college degree is now a necessity rather than an advantage. Statistics show that more high school students are entering college than ever before. The National Center for Education Statistics showed enrollment in colleges increasing 11% from 1990 to 2000 and then an incredible 37% between 2000 and 2010 (Digest of education, 2012, Chapter 4). They are leavingRead MoreSchool Profile : University Of Notre Dame Essay995 Words   |  4 PagesSchool Profile : University of Notre Dame The University of Notre Dame is a Catholic college located in suburban Indiana. The historical campus is an astounding 1,250 acres large. The university was founded in the 1840s by a local priest. Today, many priests still serve as staff, teachers and leaders. Notre Dame is four-year University that is continuously ranked among the top universities in the country and the world. The university receives over $10 billion of endowment funding, so they are oneRead MoreThe Path For Underserved Students Transitioning From Community College980 Words   |  4 Pagesorigin or ancestry, [which] is [the] major goal of American democracy† (United States Zook, 1947, p.  3). Thus, the purpose of this essay is to analyze the path for underserved students transitioning from community college to a 4-year university, while reconceptualizing the American Dream. Through a critical race theoretical lends, this essay will outline the historical trend and statistical facts on student transfer rates from community college, emphasize the importance of creating a transfer receptiveRead MoreThe Mission Of Community Colleges1130 Words   |  5 Pagesaltered missions of community colleges and related impacts on the historical mission of community colleges. The mission of community colleges were intended to serve all individuals with an equal opportunity for higher education access. In this research paper, there will be four guided questions: 1. What was the original mission of community colleges? 2. How has the community colleges mission changed over time? 3. How did the organizational culture impact the community colleges? 4. What are societal factorsRead MoreThe University 12 Miles Away1548 Words   |  7 PagesMy college education began not at the institution about which I am writing, but rather another university 12 miles away. For two years, I attended Maryville University in St. Louis with a triple major in English, psychology, and sociology. Maryville University’s campus was small with just three small academic buildings on campus. As I progressed from my freshman to my sophomore year, I realized I had outgrown the small campus that had once felt comfortable. With only one key faculty member in eachRead MoreFactors Influencing Community Colleges to Offer Baccalaureate Degrees700 Words   |  3 Pages Factors Influencing Community Colleges to Offer Baccalaureate Degrees Introduction Community colleges serve many functions in the American higher education system. They serve local populations, offer foundational coursework, and serve as the home of many occupational training programs (Dougherty Townsend, 2006). Recently, a new function has emerged: the granting of baccalaureate degrees, also known as the community college bachelor’s degree (CCB). This type of degree was established in 2001

Analysis of Trifles by Susan Glaspell Essay - 811 Words

Trifles is a play with a unified plot. Although there are verbal flashbacks to the events of the day of the murder of John Wright, the plays entire plot begins and ends in a span of one day. The author also extends the unified plot to create a single setting (the farmhouse kitchen). The plot centers on John Wrights murder. Mrs. Wright is the main suspect; an investigation is taking place as to the motive or reason for the crime. The Sheriff, Mr. Hale and the County Attorney are introduced first to the audience. They are investigating the crime scene. The women, Mrs. Hale and Mrs. Peters, accompany the men to gather whatever of Mrs. Wrights belongings that she needs in jail. This exposition turns ironic when the women end†¦show more content†¦Mrs. Peters, well call her the antagonist, repeatedly brings up the fact that the men are only doing their job and that the law will determine Mrs. Wrights fate. Mrs. Hale, on the other hand, as the protagonist, resents the mens sneaking and snooping around. Now she turns the mens stereotype of women against them. She feels guilty about not being around the Wrights farmhouse more often. The climax of the play unfolds as the women find an empty birdcage with a broken hinge. As the two women speculate why it was empty, Mrs. Hale describes Mrs. Wright to Mrs. Peters as she knew her when they were single women. The suspects maiden name was Minnie Foster. She was a beautiful songstress. A voice that was muted when she became Mrs. Wright. When Mrs. Hale finds a dead bird in Mrs. Wrights sewing box, she soon recognizes the obvious reason why John Wright was murdered. The audience sees character motivation in Mrs. Wright. Mr. Wright was a man who used silence and coldness to control and mold his wife into someone he thought she ought to be. He killed the singing bird, which was a symbol for Mrs. Wright as Minnie Foster. In an indirect way, he killed her joy of singing, her spirit, keeping her in her own cage which she can not escape from. Unless she got rid of what (or who) was holding her prisoner. As she comes up with her own judgments, Mrs. HaleShow MoreRelatedScript Analysis of Trifles by Susan Glaspell910 Words   |  4 PagesScript Analysis of â€Å"Trifles† by Susan Glaspell Summary   In the play Trifles by Susan Glaspell, there are five characters, three men and two women.   They are in a house where the murder of Mr. Wright took place the day before.   The men are trying to find evidence to name a killer or motivation to name Mrs. Wright as the murderer.   While the men are downstairs, the women occupy themselves with looking around the kitchen and living room.   They take note of Mrs. Wrights canned fruit and the factRead MoreAnalysis Of Trifles By Susan Glaspell846 Words   |  4 PagesSociety has put abnormal standards between women and men. Our gender equality has been an issue throughout history and legislative rights. In the short play â€Å"Trifles† by author Susan Glaspell, shows the feminist content and the failures of marriages. Mr. and Mrs. Wright had been married for a long time. They don’t have a family and live in a place that’s very solitary aside from any other houses. An investigation occurred to find the strang e death of Mr. Wright and to discovered evidence if Mrs.Read MoreAnalysis Of Trifles By Susan Glaspell907 Words   |  4 PagesThe play â€Å"Trifles† written by Susan Glaspell is about John Wright who was murdered. When the play begins the county attorney, sheriff, and Mr. Hale are all at Mr. Wright’s home to search for evidence for who murdered him. The two women that are in the poem are Mrs. Peters who is the sheriffs wife, and Mr. Hale’s wife, Mrs. Hale. Minnie Wright is the suspect in Mr. Wright’s case, but they are searching for answers to know exactly what happened. While the men are trying to solve the crime their wivesRead MoreAnalysis Of Trifles By Susan Glaspell804 Words   |  4 PagesIn the play Trifles, Susan Glaspell creates a situation that at first glance appears to place a woman at fault, but as the readers continue, he/she realizes that the truth is the opposite to what it appears to be. It is interesting to see how the author uses t he image of a perfect husband to portray irony with the hidden theme of isolation and patriarchy within their domestic relationship. This irony leads into Minnie Foster, also called Mrs. Wright, to use the idea of justice vs. law within thisRead MoreAnalysis Of Trifles By Susan Glaspell1255 Words   |  6 PagesMurder, torture, and mayhem are merely three of the unique problems that can be found throughout the one act play Trifles by Susan Glaspell. The writer opens up the story by explaining the situation of Mrs. Wright, a middle aged woman who is being accused of murdering her husband. The crime scene is a mess. A sheriff, the prosecuting attorney and their wives are looking in to the gruesome death that occurred upstairs in the Wright household. It is immediately found that the men focus their attentionRead MoreAnalysis Of Trifles By Susan Glaspell1042 Words   |  5 Pagesits underlying meaning can represent to each character individually and together. In the short play  "Trifles† by Susan Glaspell, readers and viewers are taken back to a period that is a lot different than the current. From the surroundings, viewpoints of each sex and their assigned roles in the society all gave a greater understanding of what was portrayed and how it was essentially handled. Trifles started with the Sheriff and his wife Mrs. Peters, Mr. Hale and Mrs. Hale and the County Attorney enteringRead MoreTrifles By Susan Glaspell Analysis1738 Words   |  7 Pageswomen dont realize the struggle women before them had to undergo. In the late 19th century women werent important, respected, or anywhere near equal to men. It was common for women to be misunderstood and or assumed by men to be uncivil. Trifles by Susan Glaspell shows the depiction of women towards the end of the 1800s. Men werent as kind or laid back when it came to running the household and handling every day matters as a family. Men were dominant. It was the patriarchal ignorance of the lateRead MoreTri fles By Susan Glaspell Analysis1257 Words   |  6 PagesTrifles by Susan Glaspell is a tragic mysterious drama that has to deal with a murderous wife, and a couple of friends who cover up her tracks. Throughout the story Glaspell gives clues to the reader to help him or her figure out what will happen in the end. Glaspell Wrote Trifles in 1916, according to the year it is safe to assume that this mysterious short story was placed in a time around the 1910’s setting. The clues she leaves, such as the quilting square, the bird, the reflections in the settingRead MoreAnalysis Of Trifles By Susan Glaspell1425 Words   |  6 PagesIn the play Trifles, by Susan Glaspell, the plot develops through action. As soon as the play begins readers and viewers are introduced to the county attorney, the sheriff, and Mr. Hale. Due to the fact that these three men discuss the case and death of Mr. Wright quite a bit, the audience is made to believe that they are the main characters of the pl ay. However; the true protagonists of the play are revealed as soon as the men departure from the kitchen and leave the characters Mrs. Peters and MrsRead MoreAnalysis Of Trifles By Susan Glaspell1829 Words   |  8 PagesMurder, torture, and mayhem are merely three of the unique problems that can be found throughout the one act play Trifles by Susan Glaspell. The writer opens up the story by explaining the situation of Mrs. Wright, a middle aged woman who is being accused of murdering her husband. The crime scene is a mess. A sheriff, the prosecuting attorney and their wives are looking in to the gruesome death that occurred upstairs in the Wright household. It is immediately found that the men focus their attention

A Study On Shark Tank - 951 Words

Since 2009, the renowned reality show, Shark Tank, has been giving small business entrepreneurs hope – allowing them to achieve dreams which previously appeared impossible. In this television show, five multi-millionaire and billionaire investors, known as â€Å"sharks†, invest their time and money into small businesses which they believe will succeed with their expertise. Each entrepreneur who enters the â€Å"Shark Tank† must attempt to convince these â€Å"sharks† that their business is worth their investment. If the entrepreneurs succeed, the â€Å"sharks† may battle between each other so that they can partake in this business. However, not every entrepreneur receives an offer. Only those with the greatest ideas and business plans receive investment offers from the â€Å"sharks†. The mission was to determine whether author Lisa Lenzo has what it takes for Shark Tank. Is she motivated to make her business succeed? Does her business address an ongoing problem or need? Would her business thrive and grow with the help of a â€Å"shark†? As a part of my search, I had the privilege of attending a contemporary writers’ presentation from Lisa. She shared her personal story explaining why writing is important to her and the reason she began writing. It was through this presentation that I discovered whether or not Lisa was the right candidate for Shark Tank. If you want to be on Shark Tank, you have to be a motivated entrepreneur. You have to be willing to acknowledge your downfalls, learn fromShow MoreRelatedCase Study : Shark Tank By Two Friends Jason Neubauer And Chris Stoikos861 Words   |  4 Pages After watching season 7, episode 23, of Shark Tank I came across I a product that I was really interested in called the â€Å"CoolBox.† Coolbox is a product that is made by two friends Jason Neubauer and Chris Stoikos. Coolbox is a modern twist on the classic toolbox and has a very appealing value proposition with its many features and gadgets. So what makes the Coolbox special and unique from the competition? The Coolbox is just like any ordinary toolbox but has much more exciting features that a consumerRead MoreCamp Cimi Experience1056 Words   |  5 Pagesspent most of our time in our study groups, which were organized by the teachers. Everyone in my group had a unique personality, which made the trip an exciting and wonderful experience. Out of all of the activities, the two that I enjoyed the most were the tide pools and shark lab. One of the main reasons I remember the tide pool lab is that our guide, Kelly, told us to gather around the crab and lobster tank. She tol d us that she was going to take a lobster out of the tank. Then, she reached in, pickedRead MoreThe Mystic Aquarium And Institute For Exploration1504 Words   |  7 Pagesalone. At the Aquarium I was responsible for providing an educational and inspiring environment for interactions between guests and animals. As a docent I gave presentations about almost every animal located in the aquarium, my favorite being the shark touch tank, and a few regarding the Titanic and its discovery by NOAA’s own Dr. Ballard. The work NOAA has done with the aquarium was the reason I first got interested in NOAA and its work. This experience in service and science provided me with the knowledgeRead MoreNew Age Of The Technological Gold Rush959 Words   |  4 Pagesfeatured films. Simply put, it’s cool to be an entrepreneur. Now let’s flip the script. According to Quartz (qz.com), of the 114 early stage start-ups at Y-Combinator, only 4% are African American founders. In addition, according to a CB insight study, only 1% African American led start-up companies are funded by venture capitalist in 2010. As a result of a lack of diversity, we have yet to see African American and other minority tech superstars. It’s not like they’re not out there. However, theRead MoreAbbey Simmons Hoff 2 9 May 2014 Aquatic Biology What is aquatic biology? Aquatic biology is700 Words   |  3 PagesAbbey Simmons Hoff 2 9 May 2014 Aquatic Biology What is aquatic biology? Aquatic biology is very similar to marine biology in that you study ecology, behavior of plants and animals, and microbes; however, instead of the main focus being saltwater, aquatic biologists study things like rivers, wetlands, ponds, and other freshwater resources (princetonreview.com). Being an aquatic biologist comes with many crazy experiences, some in college, others with diving, and some with preserving the environmentRead MoreHow to Win at the Sport of Business1589 Words   |  6 Pagesto Win at the Sport of Business: If I Can Do It, You Can Do It was written by Mark Cuban. As we all know Mark Cuban starred on the infamous Shark Tank show shown on ABC, which was an American version of Dragons’ Den. Where people came on pitched their idea to an entrepreneur or should I say possible investor and hope a shark would bite, one of those sharks was Mark Cuban. Mark Cuban is a businessman, he is an investor, and is the owner of the Dallas Ma vericks NBA team. He also is a co-owner of theRead MoreThe Destruction Of The Marine Life Essay855 Words   |  4 Pagesrapidly dying and subsequently washing up on numerous shorelines that touch the Pacific Ocean’s waters. Disposal of a variety of toxins and damaging waste finding a path into our oceans are to blame for the deaths, which are largely preventable. Sharks, sea turtles, whales, dolphins and birds are just fraction of the marine life that are suffering because they are becoming sick or are dying of starvation. Their food sources are diminishing or disappearing as the cycle of destruction continues onRead MoreCool1455 Words   |  6 Pagesit can direct toward greater levels of activity.† For example, a shark’s respiration rate is dependent on the amount of food necessary to maintain its body temperature; if the water is too cold/hot a shark must decelerate/accelerate its metabolism to maintain life functions. Goldfish, like the shark, are aquati c ectoderms, but it is possible they regulate their metabolism in a different way. It is thought that aquatic ectoderms can only regulate their body temperature through adapting their eatingRead MoreEssay about Mkt 500 Week 1 to Week 11 Discussion1413 Words   |  6 PagesMarketing Please respond to the following: †¢ From the e-Activity, imagine that you are pitching your favorite social media site to the â€Å"Shark Tank† panel for a possible investment opportunity. Examine the 4P’s (price, product, place, promotion) of your favorite social media Website. Create a brief pitch for the social media site to present to the â€Å"Shark Tank† panel. †¢ Examine the components of a marketing plan. Determine the component you believe to be the most important and the component youRead MoreInteractions Between Robotics And Biology1752 Words   |  8 Pagesfree swimming freshwater 2 black shark fish in transverse (YZ) longitudinal and plane (XZ) are measured using digital particle pic velocimetry (DPIV). By transferring momentum to fluid, thrust genetrated by fishes. Thrust is created not only by its caudal fin, also using pectoral and anal fins, the contribution of which depends on the fish’s morphology and swimming actions. These fins too act as roll and pitch stabilizers for the swimming fish. In this report, studies are performed on the flow induced

Self and Community Exploring The Anatomy of Modern Society

Question: Discuss about theSelf and Communityfor Exploring The Anatomy of Modern Society. Answer: The Common Good: Concern of Self-Esteem and Self Realization The concept of Catholic Social Thought (CST) is integrated in to the fabric of the sense of Common Good. It has been observed over time that many people are not aware of Catholic Social Thought. However, it is only when they are taught about the CST that they find meaning into the subject. It deals with social awareness through experimental learning through expansion of experiences. This document assists people in amalgamating CST with experience of Church service with the concept of social justice. The principle of CST is taken from papal documents, conical document, and statement from bishop conferences held during the last 100 years or more. The papal documents are implicit by referring the underpinning the principle in scripture and studying life and activities of the followers of Christianity. The maturity of CST holds water in hypothesis and observation (Davies, 2015). Reading the description of principles of CST, it is seen that though the principle is standalone, it has bearing on the social truths. The basis of the Common Good is on the assimilation of the CST, humans are social beings with mutual interdependence and interrelationship. (Principle 1) CST aims to improve human dignity through the image of God. This dignity needs to be viewed in conjuncture to the development of the Common Good (Principle 2). Human Rights protect the issues of Human Dignity through a spectrum of human duties. This includes creation of promoting rights and duties through humane conditions of living for the population. Protection of Human Dignity at work through accepting workers rights is a part of the principle (Principle 3). The marginalized persons are called poor through the options of CST. Valuing the economically unprivileged upfront should be the basis of decision making (Principle 4) (Feely, 2005). As messengers of God, the environment needs to be faced in terms of earthly population, and the disproportionate affects on the environment attracts concerns (Principle 5). Responsiveness to decision making refers to addressing the challenges in each sphere. Principle of subsidiary relates to grassroots level actions. (Principle 6) The Common Good Detailed explanation of each principles with examples portray how people have adopted the sense of each Principle vis--vis their experiences in societal concerns we are engaging the ongoing conversation (Vatican, 2015). The Common Good is a basic Principle and is related to Human Dignity leading to harmony and cohesion. Since Humans are a social being, personality rights require being in tune with the Principle of Common Good. Opposing the long standing culture bias is the Christian thought of Common Good. It is deeply rooted in biblical and patristic thoughts. The deserving can be accurately resolved through the interweaving of Common Good and the requirements of the underprivileged. Pope John Paul II has reorganized the erstwhile fervor to address the reality of the modern economy. The Common Good is understood as the benefit coming into subsistence in any community through cohesion amongst the actors (Coc, 2008). Life and Dignity; Human Being In the thoughts of John Paul II the issue of solidarity as a virtue appears. He says that, only virtue endorsed by each person singly is not enough. It is needs to be articulated in economical, cultural, politico- religious institution that shapes our social milieu. Common Good is grounded on the concept of community participation. With the increasing human interactions, the concept of Common Good takes an increasing collective feature, and involves the sense of rights and duties of the human society. Experience of the development of Common Good, should be built through individual rights. To make the underprivileged an equal participant, it is necessary to forego the good of the haves. It requires transformation of lifestyle, production and consumption which governs societies to describe the surplus that is produced (Annett, 2016). The Correlation of Right and Responsibility Actors have the right to take part in societal matters, by looking for common well being of the underprivileged. Advantage of an individual cannot be realized without population participation in the entire range of social milieu, unlike in a dictatorship, where the government extorts all voluntary association. It is human right to participate in that institution necessary for human existence. Family is the fulcrum of social foundation that needs to be augmented and strengthened and not underplayed. Whilst, exhaling individualism, the CST preaches that association with society, families and social institutions foster growth, defend dignity and encourage the Common Good, so that human beings fulfill their desires. The suitable and primary solution to paucity is those that allow people to control their lives (Acu, 2016). Stewardship and Care for Crreation Consultative: Possibility of following the US bishop would be possible at the national or regional level through a counseling process in generating documents on important social issues. Thus the presentation of the documents can be held in esteem. Teaching through a well-versed church is increasing recognized as integral to the pedagogy. Ecumenical: There is possibility of exploring the method to teach social truths ecumenically. The body of Chircheshas worked for long in the domain of racism, poverty and veracity of creation. Close cooperation is always a win-win situation. European Ecumenical Assembly has shown the effectiveness of co-operation. Gaps: Thoughts are that, CST will require developing and applying its line of attack to new social context. The most understandable gap is the role of a woman. It was the fulcrum of a Bishop pastoral draft circulated earlier, but introverted under force from the Vatican. These movements gave rise to Challenge of Peace (1983), Economic Justice for All (1986), Renewing the Earth (1991). These were disseminated initially as advice-giving document (Socialconcerns, 2015). Subsidiary: All authority and discussion building in the world should be at the local level, attuned with Common Good. Subsidiary will represent authority being decentralized, meaning fleeting proper powers upwards or downwards. The equilibrium amid the perpendicular (subsidiary) and the parallel (solidarity) is attained through the orientation to the Common Good. Commitment to the World: The committee presents the humankind in constructive terms produced and exchanged by God. Our role is in the designer plan functioning for its realization account. Hence, CST has urbanized a universal vision touching every level in civilization of the nation. Its role in peace has become more serious. Preaching the Gospel: Justice action and participation on behalf of the world, in the conversion of the planet, is a measurement of the demonization of the Gospel. Meaning, when this measurement is absent in our preaching we are fading to sermonize the Gospel. Interpretation of the Signs: It is the duty of the church to scrutinize the signs and interpret them as per the Gospel. It is believed that God speaks through soul account, or that Church learns from the humanity where Gods strength is in action. The earth is a part of Gods creation for the human transformation that we are responsible for (Cctwincities, 2016). References: Acu. (2016, 07 22). Unit Display. Retrieved 10 23, 2016, from Acu: https://www.acu.edu.au/units/2017/units_2017/unit_display?unit=uncc100 Annett, A. (2016). Human Flourishing, The Common Good, And Catholic Social Teaching. Columbia: Columbia University. Cctwincities. (2016). Common Good and Community. Retrieved 10 23, 2016, from cctwincities: https://www.cctwincities.org/education-advocacy/catholic-social-teaching/notable-quotations/common-good-and-community/ Coc. (2008). The principle of the common good. Retrieved 10 23, 2016, from Center of Concern: https://www.coc.org/files/principle.pdf Davies, B. (2015). Further Explanation. Retrieved 10 23, 2016, from Catholic Social Teaching: https://www.catholicsocialteaching.org.uk/principles/info/ Feely, S. K. (2005). The Principle of Human Dignity. Human Dignity , 1-10. Socialconcerns. (2015). An introduction to the principles ofcatholic social thought. Retrieved 10 23, 2016, from Center for Social Concerns: https://socialconcerns.nd.edu/content/introduction-principles-catholic-social-thought Vatican. (2015). Life In Christ. Retrieved 10 23, 2016, from vatican: https://www.vatican.va/archive/ccc_css/archive/catechism/p3s1c2a2.htm

Research Paper on Video Games Violence Essay Example

Research Paper on Video Games Violence Essay Many people believe video games violence to be a cause of aggression in adolescents. Many sociological and socio-psychological studies on the effect of violence on television on the level of aggressiveness irrefutably prove that after watching such scenes aggression increases in 3-15% of adults. The children are more susceptible than adults, especially when playing, they are not passive spectators, and become active participators in the act of violence. Recently, the public growing concern is violence in video games, which is becoming more and more realistic and sadistic. The main plot of these games is war or fighting. War is an ancient form of human activity. In short periods of peace, people played war and those war games are countless. Among them Olympic Games in ancient Greece, chivalry tournaments, and finally, the modern military exercises and maneuvers. Video games, gaining an amazing degree of realism, has long found application in the military sector. Simulations of combat and other military equipment in general were created specifically for the needs of the military and have been used and are used as simulators. A strategic war games have become an indispensable element of training commanders and staffs at all levels of military academies. Recent studies have found that video games in which there are scenes of violence may affect the brain of adolescents. Researchers at Indiana University have used method of magnetic resonance imaging to see how computer games affect the brain. It was found that the brain of the children, who play video games with violence, changed parts of the brain responsible for cognitive function and emotional control. Doctors attribute this to the fact that our social behavior is caused by our personal experiences. If the child becomes accustomed to violence, drugs, and violence in games, theoretically, this experience can shape his behavior as an adult. Virtual reality is becoming increasingly complex, three-dimensional, and realistic. This brings the players to lose sense of difference between what is real and what is not. The doctors recommend parents should control the video games their children play and to make sure that the age limit set by many of the games, is observed. The study was pub lished shortly after the announcement that the pathological dependence on the Internet and video games, perhaps in the very near future will be officially considered a mental health disorder. We will write a custom essay sample on Research Paper on Video Games Violence specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Research Paper on Video Games Violence specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Research Paper on Video Games Violence specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer If you are about to write a research paper on video game violence topic, it would be helpful to look through free example research proposal on the subject. These free samples, written by experienced professionals, can show you an example of a first-rate research paper. They will help you to outline your thesis statement, stress the most significant parts of your work, and teach you how to draw a conclusion. CAUTION! As far as you know all free research paper samples and research proposal examples about Video Games are 100% plagiarized!!! At EssayLib.com writing service you can order a custom research paper on Video Games Violence topics. Your research paper will be written from scratch. We hire top-rated Ph.D. and Master’s writers only to provide students with professional research paper assistance at affordable rates. Each customer will get a non-plagiarized paper with timely delivery. Just visit our website and fill in the order form with all research paper details: Enjoy our professional research paper writing service!

How To Give Advice in Spanish

How To Give Advice in Spanish There are at least four ways you can offer advice in Spanish, depending partly on how direct you wish to be. Statements of advice can be in the form of a command, in the form of telling a person what he or she is obligated to do, as a statement of advice followed by the subjunctive mood, and as a n impersonal statement followed by the subjunctive mood. All four methods have parallels in English. Giving Advice Using Commands Commands may go beyond the point of being advisory, depending on the context, tone of voice and whether your command is direct or indirect. In context, commands (also known as  the imperative mood) such as these can be understood as either advice or a demand: Habla tà º a la policà ­a, y diles que tu vecina est loca. (Talk to the police and tell them your neighbor is crazy.)Compre el producto, no el proveedor. (Buy the product, not the provider.)No salgas ahora. (Dont leave now.) The future tense can substitute for the imperative in making directing commands, as it can in English. But such commands are extremely forceful and thus would not usually be understood as advisory.  ¡Comers todo el almuerzo! (You will eat all of your lunch!) ¡Saldr ahora mismo! (You will leave right now!) Giving Advice by Expressing Obligation Like direct commands, whether statements of obligation (such as You should do this in English) are understood as advice - or potentially as rude - depends on context, including the tone of voice. The common ways of expressing obligation are the uses of tener que infinitive and deber infinitive. When giving advice, you can soften the tone by using a conditional form of deber: Deberà ­as estudiar un poco acerca de las opciones. (You ought to study a little bit about the choices.)No deberà ­as escoger productos lcteos que son altos en grasas. (You shouldnt choose dairy products that are high in fat.)Deberà ­an ustedes ser ms positivos. (You should be more positive.) Using Verbs of Advice With the Subjunctive Because giving advice is often a way of expressing a wish or a desire - or certainly of referring to an event that may or may not occur - the subjunctive mood is used after the verb of advice. Common verbs of advice and possible translations include: aconsejar: to advisesugerir: to suggestproponer: to propose, to put forward (an idea) These verbs should not be confused with verbs such as notificar and informar, which can be translated as advise, but only in the sense of to inform. Some examples: Te aconsejo que me olvides. (I suggest that you forget me.)Te aconsejo que te cases en tu propio paà ­s. (I advise you to get married in your own country.)Sugiero que se pueda desactivar el foro. (I suggest that you deactivate the forum.)Le sugerimos que visite nuestro sitio regularmente. (We suggest that you visit our site regularly.)Sugiero que te comuniques con el centro meteorolà ³gico de tu ciudad. (I suggest you communicate with your citys weather center.)Te propongo que escribas un articulo con lo que sabes de este seà ±or. (I suggest you write an article based on what you know about this gentleman.)Te proponemos que dediques 3 minutitos a contestar este cuestionario. (We ask you to spend just three short minutes answering this questionnaire.) Using Impersonal Statements as Advice An even less direct way of giving advice is to use impersonal statements, typically followed by the subjunctive. Examples of impersonal statements used in advice include es importante (it is important) and es necesario (it is necessary); like verbs of advice, they are followed by a verb in the subjunctive mood. And as in the fourth example below, you can make statements of how you would react as a way of advising. Es importante que participes en clase. (It is important that you participate in class.)Creemos que es necesario que tenga un coche fiable. (We believe it is important that you have a reliable car.)Serà ­a provechoso si pudià ©ramos examinar ese problema. (It would be helpful if we could examine that problem.)Me gustarà ­a si me escribes de vez en cuando. (It would please me if you write to me once in a while.) Key Takeaways The most direct way of giving advice is to use the imperative mood or the future tense, although such ways of giving advice can come across as too forceful to be considered advice.Verbs of advice are typically followed by que and a verb in the subjunctive mood.Impersonal statements followed by a verb in the subjunctive mood can be used to give advice indirectly.

Is Mass Surveillance Ever a Good Thing Research Paper

Is Mass Surveillance Ever a Good Thing - Research Paper Example The benefit of mass surveillance exceeds its negative. The research will focus on mass surveillance and outline its impact on both the government and the citizens. According to Reuters (2013), mass surveillance can be traced back to the First World War were vital information was sourced from both the enemy territory and within a given country. This was to assist the country achieve a given objective in the war. The cold war period increase and the importance of mass surveillance with its aim being monitoring activities that could expose countries secrete policy. Traditionally mass surveillance was used as a tool to counter any move by an enemy country. Traditional ideologies used the concept to attain military and political supremacy. Over the years, technologies have evolved and gadgets that are more sophisticated introduced to aid a given country in mass surveillance. Surveillance has become a modality in modern day government (Ericson & Haggerty, 2006, 4). The ideology is traced back to the world war eras and the aim is to ensure a country protects its own interests. Sovereignty of a nation could be jeopardized if a country fails to gather enough information needed to protect the interest of a given nation. The United States of America has invested heavy in mass surveillance. The driving point has been on the 2001 attack’s impact. The question has been on how to avert future calamities similar to it. New models have aided the country in their quest to counter terrorism. Bush (2006) attributes the effect of mass surveillance to national security. Different security organs relay on public information to ensure a successful plan that would protect national interests and at the same time secure a country from external attacks (Fussey, 121). Strategic planning involves designing models that would prevent an attack and at the same time source information that

Childhood Obesity in the United States Research Paper

Childhood Obesity in the United States - Research Paper Example Introduction It is obvious to note that no one will feel comfortable when he or she is obese. Since one, this will make you not to go through daily chores perfectly due to overweight. Secondly, one might incur chronic disease such as the pressure and diabetes. With that, the need to fight and eradicate it should be geared up by the non-governmental organizations, government, schools, and volunteers. United States is one of those countries that face this challenge, and the worse part of it is that according to statistics, the number of those children affected is increasing. That is why, in this essay, several writers are giving their views and the need to fight obese to the last minute. Actually according to â€Å"The Kid's Doctor: Family routines can reduce childhood obesity. Family Relation,† a journal published by the database of American pediatrics, it is worth noting that it entirely validate the significance of family routines (Hubbard Sue 2013). Having put that across, t he above article constitutes the researchers from university of Ohio State, where they deeply analyzed household routines in relation to child obesity, a problem that has been ever escalating. Here, the whole research entailed 8,500 children under the age of four years. The outcomes were alarming in that, almost 18 percent of the children were diagnosed with obesity. Due to this high number of affected children, Hubbard, the author affirms that it forced the researchers to inquire the cause of this veering phenomenon. After analysis, it became known that a number of household routines gears up a predicator of the obesity in the United Stated. It follows that this household routines are viewed as easy to initiate in that its accomplishment does not actually entail a cost. For instance, families that have established good or considerable routines family meals, this has proved to be a positive to children since it results in improved academic results in children, risk of using drugs an d alcohol, attention as well as overall wellbeing. Generally, luck of family eating together, proper sleep just to mention but a few has constituted to the issue of increased obesity in children in the US, this is according to the above article. Conclusively, in the efforts to try to give out a solution, Hubbard affirms that teens should be made to follow a certain healthy schedule for instance, they should b made to not when to go to sleep. Secondly, he reminds the parents that children under the age of two years should be denied the chance of watching television, and those above the age of two should watch television but in not more than two hours. Although, it is difficult to understand its co-relation with obesity, the truth is that this author followed the direction by the American Academic of Pediatrics. According to â€Å"school snack food rules clamp down on calories, fat†, an article by Anderson and Butcher, they actually based their argument on the research they did on the foods sold in the U.S schools (Anderson & Butcher, 2006). They argue that the snacks sold in the U.S school have actually increased the rate at which children obesity is engulfing children. According to them, they affirm that most of these foods are over-fatted; they have a lot of sugar as well as salt. They based their argument upon the rules given by the federal State regarding the quality of

Bartleby the Scrivener Essay Example for Free

Bartleby the Scrivener Essay In the course of the story the narrator describes the each characters however such is limited only to their performance in the workplace and none was revealed in their personal life. The narrator who is a lawyer in Wall Street keeps a company of three people, Turkey, Nippers, and Bartleby. Turkey, and English man who has a strange temperament that that the narrators likened to a sun rising in the morning rendering a calm atmosphere and becomes rather too hot in midday that lasts until dinner. Nippers on the other hand is the antithesis of Turkey. He is irritable in the morning and is rather calm in the afternoon. Aside from this, he also â€Å"dresses like a gentleman† as the narrator would put it in contrast to Turkey whose fashion statement is anything but appealing to the author (Melville, 1935). The narrator says he keeps Turkey and Nippers in his office because they efficient despite their mood swing. Perhaps they can be likened to the typical office clerks who got fed up with the monotony of their jobs that they have developed outburst as ways of coping. Nothing is revealed of their personal life but since they are described as efficient by the author, then there is the assumption that despite their mood swings and peculiar outbursts they are likable. On the case of Bartleby, on which the story’s title is attributed, the narrator finds him rather odd. He is a copyist same as Nippers and Turkey however he refuses to do other things such as reading a file or sending mail. As the story ends it is revealed that he works for the Dead Letter Office and as the author puts it, Bartleby is â€Å"prone to a pallid hopelessness† and his work in the Dead Letter Office only cultivated his depression (Melville, 1935). Bartleby exhibits passive resistance which is connected to his detachment from society and his roles. It can be interpreted as his refusal to be a slave to the corporate world by doing what he wishes. Overall, he poses no threat to his Boss since he can choose to dispose him whichever way he pleases but his Boss exhibits a remarkable form of charity and pity towards him. He even offers his house for Bartleby to stay at. At the end of the story when he heard rumors of Bartleby’s previous occupation he took pity on him and how his job has destroyed him.

Abduction and Hypothesis Withdrawal in Science Essay examples -- Scien

Abduction and Hypothesis Withdrawal in Science ABSTRACT: This paper introduces an epistemological model of scientific reasoning which can be described in terms of abduction, deduction and induction. The aim is to emphasize the significance of abduction in order to illustrate the problem-solving process and to propose a unified epistemological model of scientific discovery. The model first describes the different meanings of the word abduction (creative, selective, to the best explanation, visual) in order to clarify their significance for epistemology and artificial intelligence. In different theoretical changes in theoretical systems we witness different kinds of discovery processes operating. Discovery methods are "data-driven," "explanation-driven" (abductive), and "coherence-driven" (formed to overwhelm contradictions). Sometimes there is a mixture of such methods: for example, an hypothesis devoted to overcome a contradiction is found by abduction. Contradiction, far from damaging a system, help to indicate regions in which it can be changed and improved. I will also consider a kind of "weak" hypothesis that is hard to negate and the ways for making it easy. In these cases the subject can "rationally" decide to withdraw his or her hypotheses even in contexts where it is "impossible" to find "explicit" contradictions and anomalies. Here, the use of negation as failure (an interesting technique for negating hypotheses and accessing new ones suggested by artificial intelligence and cognitive scientists) is illuminating I. Abduction and Scientific Discovery Philosophers of science in the twentieth century have traditionally distinguished between the logic of discovery and the logic of justification. Most have conclude... ...s based on set covering model, International Journal on Man-Machine Studies, 19, pp. 443-460. C. Shelley, 1996, Visual abductive reasoning in archaeology, Philosophy of Science, 63(2), pp. 278-301. J. C. Shepherdson, 1984, Negation as failure: a comparison of Clark's completed data base and Reiter's closed world assumption, Journal of Logic Programming, 1(1), 1984, 51-79. ________, 1988, Negation in logic programming, in J. Minker (ed.), Foundations of Deductive Databases, Morgan Kaufmann, Los Altos, CA, pp. 19-88. P. Thagard, 1988, Computational Philosophy of Science, Cambridge, MA, The MIT Press. ________, 1992, Conceptual Revolutions, Princeton, NJ, Princeton University Press. ________ and C. Shelley, 1994, Limitations of current formal models of abductive reasoning, Department of Philosophy, University of Waterloo, Ontario, Canada, forthcoming.

Memory Organization

Memory Basics Memory is the workspace for the computers processor. It is a temporary storage area where the programs and data being operated on by the processor must reside. Memory storage is considered temporary because the data and programs will remain there only as long as the computer has electrical power or is not reset. Before being shut down or reset, any data that has been changed should be saved to a more permanent storage device of some type (usually a hard disk) so it can be reloaded into memory again in the future. We often call memory RAM, for Random Access Memory.Main memory is called RAM because you can randomly (and quickly) access any location in memory. When we talk about a computers memory, we usually mean the RAM in the system, meaning primarily the memory chips or modules that make up the primary active program and data storage used by the processor. This is often confused with the term storage, which should be used when referring to things such as disk and tape drives (although some people do consider them a form of memory). 2Types of Memory To better understand physical memory in a system, it is necessary to see where and how it fits into the system.Three main types of physical memory used in modern PCs are †¢ ROM: Read Only Memory †¢ DRAM: Dynamic Random Access Memory †¢ SRAM: Static RAM 2. 1ROM Read Only Memory, or ROM, is a type of memory that can permanently or semipermanently hold data. It is called read-only because it is either impossible or difficult to write to. ROM is also often referred to as non-volatile memory because any data stored in ROM will remain, even if the power is turned off. As such, ROM is an ideal place to put the PCs startup instructionsthat is, the software that boots the system.Note that ROM and RAM are not opposites, as some people seem to believe. In fact, ROM is technically a subset of the systems RAM. In other words, a portion of the systems Random Access Memory address space is mapped into one or more ROM chips. This is necessary to contain the software that enables the PC to boot up; otherwise, the proces- sor would have no program in memory to execute when it was powered on. For example, when a PC is turned on, the processor automatically jumps to address FFFF0h, expecting to find instructions to tell the processor what to do.This location is exactly 16 bytes from the end of the first megabyte of RAM space, and the end of the ROM. If this location was mapped into regular memory 1 chips, any data stored there would have disappeared when the power was turned off previously, and the processor would subsequently find no instructions to run the next time power was turned on. By placing a ROM chip at this address, a system startup program can be permanently loaded into the ROM and will be available every time the system is turned on. The motherboard ROM normally contains four main programs, including the following in most systems: †¢ POST: Power-On Self Test.A series of test routines that ensure the system components are operating properly. †¢ CMOS Setup: A menu-driven application that allows the user to set sys- tem configuration parameters, options, security settings, and preferences. †¢ Bootstrap Loader: The routine that first scans the floppy drive and then the hard disk, looking for an operating system to load. †¢ BIOS: Basic Input/Output System. A series of device driver programs designed to present a standard interface to the basic system hardware, especially hardware that must be active during the boot process. Four different types of ROM chips are ROM. Read Only Memory †¢ PROM. Programmable ROM †¢ EPROM. Erasable PROM †¢ EEPROM. Electrically Erasable PROM, also called a flash ROM No matter which type of ROM you use, the data stored in a ROM chip is non- volatile and will remain indefinitely unless intentionally erased or overwritten. 2. 1. 1PROM PROMs are a type of ROM that is blank when new and must be pr ogrammed with whatever data you want 2. 1. 2EPROM One variation of the PROM that has been very popular is the EPROM. An EPROM is a PROM that is erasable. EPROM is erased by exposure to intense UV light. 2. 1. 3 EEPROM/Flash ROMA newer type of ROM is the EEPROM, which stands for Electrically Erasable PROM. These chips are also called flash ROMs, and are characterized by their capability to be erased and reprogrammed directly in the circuit board in which they are installed, with no special equipment required. 2 2. 2DRAM Dynamic RAM is the type of memory chip used for most of the main memory in a modern PC. The main advantages of DRAM is that it is very dense, meaning you can pack a lot of bits into a very small chip, and it is very inexpensive, which makes it affordable for large amounts of memory.The memory cells in a DRAM chip are tiny capacitors that retain a charge to indicate a bit. The problem with DRAM is that it is dynamic, and because of the design must be constantly refresh ed or the electrical charges in the individual memory capacitors will drain and the data will be lost. Refresh occurs when the system memory controller takes a tiny break and accesses all the rows of data in the memory chips. DRAMs use only one transistor and capacitor pair per bit, which makes them very dense, offering a lot of memory capacity per chip than other types of memory. 2. 3 Cache MemorySRAMThere is another distinctly different type of memory that is significantly faster than most types of DRAM. SRAM stands for Static RAM, which is so named because it does not need the periodic refresh rates like DRAM (Dynamic RAM). Due to the design of SRAM, not only are refresh rates unnecessary, but SRAM is much faster than DRAM and is fully able to keep pace with modern processors. SRAM memory is available in access times of 2ns or less, which means it can keep pace with processors running 500MHz or faster! This is due to the SRAM design, which calls for a cluster of six transistors f or each bit of storage.The use of transistors but no capacitors means that refresh rates are not necessary because there are no capacitors to lose their charges over time. As long as there is power, SRAM will remember what is stored. Compared to DRAM, SRAM is much faster, but also much lower in density and much more expensive. The lower density means that SRAM chips are physically larger and store many less bits overall. The high number of transistors and the clustered design means that SRAM chips are both physically larger and much more expensive to produce than DRAM chips.Even though SRAM is too expensive for PC use as main memory, PC designers have found a way to use SRAM to dramatically improve PC performance. Rather than spend the money for all RAM to be SRAM memory, which can run fast enough to match the CPU, it is much more cost-effective to design in a small amount of high-speed SRAM memory, called cache memory. The cache runs at speeds close to or even equal to the processo r, and is the memory from which the processor normally directly reads from and writes to. During read operations, the data in the high-speed cache memory is resupplied from the lower-speed main memory or DRAM in advance. 3Memory Packaging Memory is made from tiny semiconductor chips and must be packaged into something less fragile and tiny in order to be integrated with the rest of the system Different types of memory paclages are †¢ Dual Inline Packages (DIPs) and Memory Modules †¢ Single Inline Memory Modules (SIMMs) †¢ Dual Inline Memory Modules (DIMMs) 3. 1DIPS Most memory chips are packaged into small plastic or ceramic packages called dual inline packages or DIPs. A DIP is a rectangular package with rows of pins running along its two longer edges These are the small black boxes you see on SIMMs, DIMMs or other larger packaging styles . 2SIMMs SIMMs are available in two flavors: 30 pin and 72 pin. 30-pin SIMMs are the older standard, and were popular on third and fourth generation motherboards. 72-pin SIMMs are used on fourth, fifth and sixth generation PCs. SIMMs are placed into special sockets on the motherboard created to hold them. The sockets are specifically designed to ensure that once inserted, the SIMM will be held in place tightly 3. 3DIMMs DIMMs are 168 pins in size, and provide memory 64 bits in width. They are a newer form factor and are becoming the de facto standard for new PCs; they are not used on older motherboards motherboards.SIMMs have contacts on either side of the circuit board but they are tied together. So a 30-pin SIMM has 30 contacts on each side of the circuit board, but each pair is connected. DIMMs however have different connections on each side of the circuit board 4Memory Banks Memory chips (DIPs, SIMMs, SIPPs, and DIMMs) are organized in banks on motherboards and memory cards. The banks usually correspond to the data bus capacity of the system’s microprocessor. The number of bits for each bank can be made up of single chips, SIMMs, or DIMMs. 4 5Memory ReliabilityA part of the nature of memory is that it will inevitably fail. These failures are usually classified as two basic types: hard fails and soft errors. The most well understood are hard fails, in which the chip is working and then, due to some flaw, physical damage, or other event, becomes damaged and experiences a permanent failure. Fixing this type of failure normally requires replacement of some part of the memory hardware, such as the chip, SIMM, or DIMM. Hard error rates are known as HERs. The other more insidious type of failure is the soft error.A soft error is a nonpermanent failure that may never reoccur, or occur at infrequent intervals. (Soft fails are effectively â€Å"fixed† by powering the system off and back on. ) Soft error rates are known as SERs. There are basically three levels and techniques for fault tolerance used in modern PCs: †¢ Non-parity †¢ Parity †¢ ECC (Error Correcting Co de) Non-parity systems have no fault tolerance at all. The reason they are even used is because they have the lowest inherent cost. No additional memory is necessary as is the case with parity or ECC techniques. 6ParityTne standard IBM set for the industry is that the memory chips in a bank of nine each handle one bit of data: eight bits per character plus one extra bit called the parity bit. As the eight individual bits in a byte are stored in memory, a parity genera- tor/checker, which is either part of the CPU or located in a special chip on the motherboard, evaluates the data bits by counting the number of 1s in the byte. If an even number of 1s is in the byte, the parity generator/checker creates a 1 and stores it as the ninth bit (parity bit) in the parity memory chip.That makes the total sum for all nine bits an odd number. If the original sum of the eight data bits is an odd number, the parity bit created is 0, keeping the 9-bit sum an odd number. The value of the parity bit is always chosen so that the sum of all nine bits (eight data bits plus one parity bit) is an odd number. The following examples may make it easier to understand: Data bit number: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Data bit value:10110011 Parity bit:0 5 In this example, because the total number of data bits with a value of 1 is an odd number (5), the parity bit must have a value of 0 to ensure an odd sum for all nine bits.The following is another example: Data bit number: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Data bit value :00110011 Parity bit: 1 In this example, because the total number of data bits with a value of 1 is an even number (4), the parity bit must have a value of 1 to create an odd sum for all nine bits. When the system reads memory back from storage, it checks the parity information. If a (9-bit) byte has an even number of bits with a parity bit value of 1, that byte must have an error. The system cannot tell which bit has changed, or if only a single bit has changed.If three bits changed, for example, the byte still flags a parity-check error; if two bits changed, however, the bad byte may pass unnoticed. The following examples show parity-check messages for three types of systems: For the IBM PC: PARITY CHECK x For the IBM XT: PARITY CHECK x yyyyy (z) For the IBM AT and late model XT: PARITY CHECK x yyyyy Where x is 1 or 2: 1=Erroroccurredonthemotherboard 2=Erroroccurredinanexpansionslot yyyyy represents a number from 00000 through FFFFF that indicates, in hexadecimal notation, the byte in which the error has occurred. Where (z) is (S) or (E ): S) = Parity error occurred in the system unit (E ) = Parity error occurred in the expansion chassis When a parity-check error is detected, the motherboard parity-checking cir- cuits generate a non-maskable interrupt (NMI), which halts processing and di- 6 verts the systems attention to the error. The NMI causes a routine in the ROM to be executed. The routine clears the screen and then displays a message in the upper-left corner of the screen . The message differs depending on the type of computer system. 7 ECC (Error Correcting Code) ECC goes a big step beyond simple parity error detection.Rather than just detecting an error, ECC allows a single bit error to be corrected, which means the system can continue on without interruption and without corrupting data. ECC as implemented in most PCs can only detect and not correct double-bit errors. Because studies have indicated that approximately 98 percent of memory errors are single- bit variety, the most commonly used type of ECC is one in which the attendant memory controller detects and corrects single-bit errors in an accessed data word (double-bit errors can be detected, but not corrected).This type of ECC is known as SEC-DED and requires an additional seven check bits over 32 bits in a 4-byte system and eight check bits in an 8-byte system. ECC in a 4-byte system obviously costs more than non-parity or parity, but in an 8-byte system, ECC and parity costs are equal. ECC entails the memory controller calculating the check bits on a memory- write operation, performing a compare between the read and calculated check- bits on a read operation and, if necessary, correcting bad bit(s).The additional ECC logic in the memory controller is not very significant in this age of inex- pensive, high-performance VLSI logic, but ECC actually affects memory perfor- mance on writes. This is because the operation must be timed to wait for the calculation of check bits and, when the system waits for corrected data, reads. On a partial-word write, the entire word must first be read, the affected byte(s) rewritten, and then new check bits calculated. This turns partial-word write operations into slower read-modify writes. Most memory errors are of a single-bit nature, which are correctable by ECC.Incorporating this fault-tolerant technique provides high system reliability and attendant availability. An ECC-based system is a good choice for servers, workstations, or mis sion-critical applications in which the cost of a potential memory error outweighs the additional memory and system cost to correct it, along with ensuring that it does not detract from system reliability. 8 The System Logical Memory Layout The original PC had a total of 1M of addressable memory, and the top 384K of that was reserved for use by the system.Placing this reserved space at the top (between 640K and 1024K instead of at the bottom, between 0K and 640K) led to what today is often called the conventional memory barrier. The constant pressures on system and peripheral manufacturers to maintain compatibility by never breaking from the original memory scheme of the first PC has resulted in 7 a system memory structure that is (to put it kindly) a mess. Logical memory sections are given below †¢ Conventional (Base) memory †¢ Upper Memory Area (UMA) †¢ High Memory Area (HMA) †¢ Extended memory (XMS) †¢ Expanded memory (obsolete) Video RAM memory (part of UMA) †¢ Adapter ROM and Special Purpose RAM (part of UMA) †¢ Motherboard ROM BIOS (part of UMA) 8. 1 Conventional (Base) Memory The original PC/XT-type system was designed to use 1M of memory workspace, sometimes called RAM (random access memory). This 1M of RAM is divided into several sections, some of which have special uses. DOS can read and write to the entire megabyte, but can manage the loading of programs only in the portion of RAM space called conventional memory, which was 512K at the time the first PC was introduced.The other 512K was reserved for use by the system, including the motherboard and adapter boards plugged into the system slots. After introducing the system, IBM decided that only 384K was needed for these reserved uses, and the company began marketing PCs with 640K of user memory. Thus, 640K became the standard for memory that can be used by DOS for running programs, and is often termed the 640K memory barrier. The remaining memory after 640K was rese rved for use by the graphics boards, other adapters, and the motherboard ROM BIOS.This barrier largely affects 16-bit software such as DOS and Windows 3. 1, and is much less of a factor with 32-bit software and operating systems such as Windows 95/98, NT, and so on. 8. 2 Upper Memory Area (UMA) The term Upper Memory Area (UMA) describes the reserved 384K at the top of the first megabyte of system memory on a PC/XT and the first megabyte on an AT-type system. This memory has the addresses from A0000 through FFFFF. The way the 384K of upper memory is used breaks down as follows: †¢ The first 128K after conventional memory is called video RAM.It is re- served for use by video adapters. When text and graphics are displayed onscreen, the electronic impulses that contain their images reside in this space. Video RAM is allotted the address range from A0000-BFFFF. 8 †¢ The next 128K is reserved for the adapter BIOS that resides in read-only memory chips on some adapter boards plug ged into the bus slots. Most VGA-compatible video adapters use the first 32K of this area for their onboard BIOS. The rest can be used by any other adapters installed. Many network adapters also use this area for special-purpose RAM called Shared Memory.Adapter ROM and special-purpose RAM is allotted the address range from C0000-DFFFF. †¢ The last 128K of memory is reserved for motherboard BIOS (the basic input/output system, which is stored in read-only RAM chips or ROM). The POST (Power-On Self Test) and bootstrap loader, which handles your system at bootup until the operating system takes over, also reside in this space. Most systems only use the last 64K (or less) of this space, leaving the first 64K or more free for remapping with memory managers. Some systems also include the CMOS Setup program in this area.The motherboard BIOS is allotted the address range from E0000-FFFFF. 8. 3Extended Memory The memory map on a system based on the 286 or higher processor can extend bey ond the 1M boundary that exists when the processor is in real mode. On a 286 or 386SX system, the extended memory limit is 16M; on a 386DX, 486, Pentium, Pentium MMX, or Pentium Pro system, the extended memory limit is 4G (4,096M). Systems based on the Pentium II processor have a limit of 64G (65,536M). For a system to address memory beyond the first megabyte, the processor must be in protected modethe native mode of 286 and higher processors.On a 286, only programs designed to run in protected mode can take advantage of extended memory. 386 and higher processors offer another mode, called virtual real mode, which enables extended memory to be, in effect, chopped into 1M pieces (each its own real-mode session). Virtual real mode also allows for several of these sessions to be running simultaneously in protected areas of memory. The extended memory specification (XMS) was developed in 1987 by Mi- crosoft, Intel, AST Corp. , and Lotus Development to specify how programs would use exte nded memory.The XMS specification functions on systems based on the 286 or higher and allows real-mode programs (those designed to run in DOS) to use extended memory and another block of memory usually out of the reach of DOS. Before XMS, there was no way to ensure cooperation between programs that switched the processor into protected mode and used extended memory. There was also no way for one program to know what another had been doing with the extended memory because none of them could see that memory while in real mode. HIMEM.SYS becomes an arbitrator of sorts that first grabs all the extended memory for itself and then doles it out to programs that know the XMS protocols. In this manner, several programs that use XMS memory can operate together under DOS on the same system, switching the pro- cessor into 9 and out of protected mode to access the memory. Extended memory can be made to conform to the XMS specification by installing a de- vice driver in the CONFIG. SYS file. The most common XMS driver is HIMEM. SYS, which is included with Windows 3. x and later versions of DOS, starting with 4. and up. 8. 4 High Memory Area (HMA) The High Memory Area (HMA) is an area of memory 16 bytes short of 64K in size, starting at the beginning of the first megabyte of extended memory. It can be used to load device drivers and memory-resident programs to free up conventional memory for use by real-mode programs. Only one device driver or memory-resident program can be loaded into HMA at one time, no matter what its size. Originally, this could be any program, but Microsoft decided that DOS could get there first, and built capability into DOS 5 and newer versions.The HMA area is extremely important to those who use DOS 5 or higher because these DOS versions can move their own kernel (about 45K of program instructions) into this area. This is accomplished simply by first loading an XMS driver (such as HIMEM. SYS) and adding the line DOS=HIGH to your CONFIG. SYS file. Tak ing advantage of this DOS capability frees another 45K or so of conventional memory for use by real-mode programs by essentially mov- ing 45K of program code into the first segment of extended memory.Although this memory was supposed to be accessible in protected mode only, it turns out that a defect in the design of the original 286 (which, fortunately, has been propagated forward to the more recent processors as a feature) accidentally al- lows access to most of the first segment of extended memory while still in real mode. The use of the HMA is controlled by the HIMEM. SYS or equivalent driver. The origins of this memory usage are interesting because they are based on a bug in the original 286 processor carried forward through even the Pentium II. 8. 5 Expanded MemorySome older programs can use a type of memory called Expanded Memory Spec- ification or EMS memory. Unlike conventional (the first megabyte) or extended (the second through 16th or 4,096th megabytes) memory, expanded memory is not directly addressable by the processor. Instead, it can only be accessed through a 64K window and small 16K pages established in the UMA. Expanded memory is a segment or bank-switching scheme in which a custom memory adapter has a large number of 64K segments onboard, com- bined with special switching and mapping hardware. The system uses a free segment in the UMA as the home address for the EMS board.After this 64K is filled with data, the board rotates the filled segment out and a new, empty segment appears to take its place. In this fashion, you have a board that can keep on rotating in new segments to be filled with data. Because only one segment can be seen or oper- ated on at one time, EMS is very inefficient for program code and is normally 10 only used for data. 9Video Memory The video memory is such an important component of the video card, and indirectly the entire PC, that several new memory technologies have been created specifically for it.The goal: to impr ove the speed with which information can be pumped into and out of the video memory, to keep system performance high as the video system tries to do more and more. Various memory technologies now being used on video cards are explained below. 9. 1 Standard (Fast Page Mode) DRAM The oldest technology used in video card memory, fast page mode (FPM) memory is now considered â€Å"standard† DRAM as it has the fewest performanceenhancing capabilities of the different types of memory on the market. FPM DRAM is a technology used primarily for main system memories (even there, it is now considered a poor performer) and is not really ell-suited for highperformance video applications. 11 FPM is the least expensive type of memory available for video, and is used today mostly on low-end or generic cards (as well as older cards of course). For many applications they can be quite satisfactory; however, they reach their limits quickly when trying to use high resolution modes, especially in true color. The limitations of standard DRAM are due to two primary effects: it is single ported (which means it can only do one access at a time) and it runs at a relatively low speed and access width. 9. 2 Extended Data Out (EDO) DRAMEDO DRAM is the same as standard FPM DRAM except for a slight modification in the access cycle that gives it a small performance boost. With EDO DRAM, one read to memory can begin before the last one has completely finished; this yields a raw speed improvement of between 5 and 20 percent, depending on whom you ask. Originally used only for main system memory, EDO DRAM is becoming more popular on video cards because it provides slightly improved performance over standard DRAM at the same cost. (At one time EDO was more expensive than FPM but due to supply and demand effects now, EDO is actually the same cost or lower).EDO is still, however, a low-cost and low-performance solution compared to other types of video memory, and is not used on high-end card s. 9. 3 Video RAM (VRAM) The traditional, standard DRAM used for video cards typically does not have enough bandwidth to handle the demands of running a card at high resolution and color depths, with acceptable refresh rates. The main reason why is the two competing access factors for the video memory: the processor writing new information to the memory, and the RAMDAC reading it many times per second in order to send video signals to the monitor.To address this fundamental limitation, a new type of memory was created called video RAM or VRAM. As the name implies, this memory is specifically tailored for use in video systems. The fundamental difference between VRAM and standard DRAM is that VRAM is dual-ported. This means that it has two access paths, and can be written to and read from simultaneously. The advantages of this are of course enormous given what the video card does: many times per second a new screen image is calculated and written to the memory, and many times per seco nd this memory is read and sent to the monitor.Dual- porting allows these operations to occur without bumping into each other. VRAM provides substantially more bandwidth than either standard DRAM or EDO DRAM; double in many cases. It is more suited for use in systems requiring high resolution and color depth displays. The only reason that it hasn’t replaced standard DRAM entirely is of course: cost. VRAM is more complex and requires more silicon per bit than standard DRAM, which makes it cost more. 12 9. 4Window RAM (WRAM)Window RAM or WRAM is a modification of regular VRAM that both improves performance and reduces cost on a bit-for-bit basis. Designed specifically for use in graphics cards, WRAM is also dual-ported but has about 25% more bandwidth than VRAM, and also incorporates additional features to allow for higher performance memory transfers for commonly used graphical operations such as text drawing and block fills. Furthermore, WRAM is less expensive than VRAM to ma nufacture (although still more expensive than DRAM). 9. 5 Synchronous Graphics RAM (SGRAM)A relatively newer RAM technology, Synchronous Graphics RAM or SGRAM tackles the poor performance of regular DRAM by increasing greatly the speed at which memory transfers take place. SGRAM also incorporates specific per- formance enhancing features designed to work with acceleration features built into video cards, to greatly improve overall video processing speed. SGRAM is still single-ported, unlike VRAM or WRAM, but offers performance that is much closer to VRAM than DRAM due to its advanced design. 10 Flash Memory DevicesFlash memory has been around for several years as a main or an auxiliary storage medium for notebook computers. However, the rise of devices such as digital cameras and MP3 players and the presence of USB ports on practically all recent systems have transformed this technology from a niche product into a mainstream must-have storage technology. Flash memory is a type of no nvolatile memory that is divided into blocks rather than bytes, as with normal RAM memory modules. Flash memory, which also is used in most recent computers for BIOS chips, is changed by a process known as Fowler-Nordheim tunneling.This process removes the charge from the floating gate associated with each memory cell. Flash memory then must be erased before it can be charged with new data. The speed, low reprogramming current requirements, and compact size of recent flash memory devices have made flash memory a perfect counterpart for portable devices such as notebook computers and digital cameras, which often refer to flash memory devices as so-called â€Å"digital film†. Unlike real film, digital film can be erased and reshot.Ultra-compact, USB-based keychain drives that use flash memory are replacing both traditional floppy drives and Zip/SuperDisk drives for transporting data between systems. Diiferent types of flash memory devices are expained below. 10. 1Compact Flash CompactFlash was developed by SanDisk Corporation in 1994 and uses ATA architecture to emulate a disk drive; a CompactFlash device attached to a com- 13 puter has a disk drive letter just like your other drives. Later types of flash memory also use ATA architecture, either implemented in the device itself or in its controller. 0. 2MultiMedia Card The MultiMediaCard (MMC) was codeveloped by SanDisk and Infineon Tech- nologies AG (formerly Siemens AG) in November 1997 for use with smart phones, MP3 players, digital cameras, and camcorders. The MMC uses a simple 7-pin serial interface to devices and contains low-voltage flash memory. 10. 3Secure Digital (SD) A SecureDigital (SD) storage device is about the same size as MMC , but it’s a more sophisticated product. SD, which was codeveloped by Toshiba, Matsushita Electric (Panasonic), and SanDisk in 1999, gets its name from two special features.The first is encrypted storage of data for additional security, meeting current and fut ure Secure Digital Music Initiative (SDMI) standards for portable devices. The second is a mechanical write-protection switch. 10. 4Pen Drive As an alternative to floppy and Zip/SuperDisk-class removable-media drives, USB-based flash memory devices are rapidly becoming the preferred way to move data between systems. The first successful drive of this type – Trek’s ThumbDrivewas – introduced in 2000 and has spawned many imitators, in- cluding many that incorporate a keychain or pocket clip to emphasize their portability.Unlike other types of flash memory, USB keychain drives don’t require a separate card reader; they can be plugged in to any USB port or hub. Al- though a driver is usually required for Windows 98 and Windows 98SE, most USB keychain drives can be read immediately by newer versions of Windows, particularly Windows XP. As with other types of flash memory, USB keychain drives are assigned a drive letter when connected to the computer. Most have capacities ranging from 128MB to 1GB, with some capacities as high as 2GB or more.However, typical read/write performance of USB 1. 1-compatible drives is about 1MBps. Hi-Speed USB keychain drives are much faster, providing read speeds ranging from 5MBps to 15MBps and write speeds ranging from 5MBps to 13MBps. 11Advanced Memory Technologies 11. 1RDRAM RDRAM is a proprietary technology made by Rambus Inc. for use exclusively in certain Intel compatible motherboards 14 RDRAM stands for Rambus Dynamic Random Access Memory. It can access data anywhere on the chip; It requires power to hold its data; and it transfers data twice per clock signal.However, it uses a smaller pathway, or â€Å"system bus,† to send information. The Rambus system bus is 16-bits wide. Rambus transfers data at 800 megahertz (MHz) and faster. Rambus is the more expensive type of memory since its proprietary, royalty costs that manufacturers must pay to produce it tend to result in higher retail prices. Add itionally, Rambus compatible motherboards require that all of their RAM slots be occupied. Traditionally, a computer may contain anywhere from one to four ram slots. If a slot is unoccupied, the system still operates.Rambus requires that either a Rambus memory module or a kind of place holder known as a continuity module be in place to complete the memory path to the bus. 11. 2 DDR SDRAM (DDR) Double data rate (DDR) SDRAM memory is a JEDEC-created standard that is an evolutionary upgrade of standard SDRAM in which data is transferred twice as quickly. Instead of doubling the actual clock rate, DDR memory achieves the doubling in performance by transferring twice per transfer cycle: once at the leading (falling) edge and once at the trailing (rising) edge of the cycle.This effectively doubles the transfer rate, even though the same overall clock and timing signals are used. Since its inception, manufacturers have release new and faster versions of DDR. These are based on the use of p refetch buffers that access not only the memory, or â€Å"dataword,† requested by the processor but also the datawords adjacent to it on the chip. Thus DDR2 â€Å"fetches† four datawords per memory access, double the amount of DDR. DDR3, a more recent update, obtains eight datawords per access. 15